Sterilizing Development Arrives in Goshen

Goshen has seen a remarkable renaissance over the past 20 years, not just in its downtown, but also in the community as a whole. Art, entrepreneurship, food, entertainment, retail commerce, and recreation are blossoming in the city’s rich culture. As such, Goshen has become a model of success among northern Indiana municipalities and an increasingly vibrant destination. Much of this success is due to the vision and tireless efforts of individuals working to preserve and develop the downtown and the civic life that enriches it.

Image: 1917 Sanborn map compilation

It is important, however, to also recognize the importance of Goshen’s built environment. A glance at the 1917 Sanborn fire insurance map of Goshen will reveal how few buildings have been torn down in the past one hundred years. Most of the loss of significant downtown buildings has occurred on the block north of the courthouse which, as a result, continues to suffer from blight. This is in direct contrast to many surrounding cities such as Elkhart and South Bend where mid-century urban renewal projects based in modernist function-based zoning resulted in the demolition of many buildings and an ensuing urban blight that has plagued their downtowns.

The architectural and urban language of Goshen is typical of midwestern towns. Traditionally proportioned brick buildings with aesthetically pleasing window treatments, ornamental cornices, and readily recognizable entrances at the human scale unify the downtown and create a sense of urban enclosure. In addition to this, the individual care and detail given to each building enlivens the street and provides a physical demonstration of the respect their builders had for the city and their rôle not only in its built environment, but in its civic life.

Image: Looking north on Main Street in 1915. Courtesy Goshen Historical Society

Like other traditional cities, the footprint of each building is derived from the lot layout of the city, with each lot and its associated façade sharing space on the busy street it serves. The closer to the main commercial or matrix route (Main Street in Goshen) the more valuable, and therefore smaller, the lot size. More significant buildings, such as the theatre may take up more frontage, but they relay their civic importance through their detailing and scale. Few but the most civically significant buildings rise above two stories.

Image: Wallingford. Figure-ground from “The Changing Morphology of Suburban Neighborhoods” by Anne Vernez Moudon

The two story height, lot-scaled façade widths, and detailed cornices paired with the width of the street all combine to create a time-tested set of urban proportions that promote human security, commercial success, and pedestrian traffic. The varying cornices provide uniform urban enclosures, just like the rooms in a house, neither too tall nor too wide, but simultaneously providing variation and interest at the scale of each lot. City, street, block, lot, and building function at a human scale that is understandable and welcoming.

If there is one quality that unifies these various characteristics, (and the traits of any successful traditional urbanism) it could perhaps best be described as neighborliness. Every building is engaged with those around it in a lively conversation that is neither overbearing or unwelcoming.

Initial design for development by Ins!te Developments, LLC. This design has been revised to be less jail-like at the request of Mayor Stutsman, but this rendering is still on the Redevelopment Commission webpage as of 6/18/2019.*

Over the past year, the Redevelopment Commission has approved proposals by Ins!te Development, LLC a Mishawaka-based development company headed by international real estate investors for projects all located near the millrace and historic historic Hawks factory building. Most significant of these projects is the development known as the River Arts Building. The project proposes a block-sized, 4-story structure with an interior courtyard. The building will be clad in a patchwork of cheap materials including concrete panels, corrugated steel, and what looks like concrete block or perhaps brick veneer, with occasional windows, balconies, and overhangs either protruding or receding from the otherwise monolithic block. In addition to the unprecedented hight of the building, its sheer size presents an unreconcilable rift with its surrounding buildings and the rest of downtown. It is a 4-story block-sized monolith which, in the developer's own words, directs itself towards its residents and not the surrounding city. The proposal appears (in the most recent rendering) to be very similar to what has been built in Mishawaka and uses materials, façade proportions, brutal window treatments, and a complete lack of human scale. No attempt has been made to integrate building scale, materials, or historic urban building patterns.

Views of the more recently updated design showing the building footprint and attempts to conceal the 4th floor. These images speak for themselves.

This exact project type is well known in cities around the country and is rapidly becoming a major threat to historic urban areas. One such area (among many) is Charlotte, North Carolina where more than 20,000 units are either complete or under construction. These buildings are out of character with their surroundings in scale, materials, and proportion. Their designers attempt to mitigate their massiveness by applying a variety of exterior finishes in a seemingly patternless collage, often mixing brick, cement board, and corrugated metal. In my hometown of Richmond, Virginia one prominent traditional architect has named this kind of form "RPQ, the Random Patchwork Quilt Style.” As with the current “River Arts” proposal, the incongruity of these developments is a telltale symptom of their greater threat.

Practitioners and citizens in cities that have been effected by these projects have identified the the core issues with this type of development based on the damage that has been done in their neighborhoods and in other cities. Chief among these issues is the fact that projects like this are motivated by short-sighted commercial interests on the part of the developer (and often on the part of city officials), but do so to the long-term detriment of the city.

In Charlotte, a group called Civic By Design has effectively defined the dense, cheap apartment blocks appearing in American cities as "sterilizing development.” To quote their definition: "Sterilizing development can be defined as new development that is too dense, too tall, too quick and diluting the funky character that makes our historic neighborhoods special. These new designs are completely different in character and feel, quality, and style of bland, boring, beige, behemoth boxes all with the same look, the same standards, same floor plans. This coarse grain approach is wiping out affordable housing and hole-in-the-wall neighborhood hang-outs, forcing people out and changing both the character and the social structure. Developments with weak design and poor construction will not age well and quickly become passé, leaving neighborhoods to deal with the negative consequences in their wake.”

In addition to this, these types of development are the antithesis of the small-scale, incremental, lot-sized development that has historically provided a diverse and varied opportunity for residents and retailers to live, grow, and do business. Take a typical block of downtown Goshen: each building is of a similar height and width, has similar window treatments, a cornice, shop windows, etc. Variation and diversity are the rule, not the exception, but as a whole they present a unified streetscape that has been shown over the last millenia to provide the best environment for sustainable growth and financial resilience. Some are slightly taller than others, some are better maintained than others, some have lower rent than others, some have small spaces available for first time businesses or single residents. Some can be purchased and maintained by regular citizens with regular incomes.

An exhibit by Tom Low of Civic By Design showing alternative fine-grain development (incorporating existing historic structures) compared to the coarse-grain current developer model

This is important because a large, block-sized development represents a huge investment ($22 million combined in the case of this development) and a correspondingly large maintenance budget. Only a development company with significant resources can pool that much funding, which in turn provides them with unassailable bargaining powers with the city.

This may work well if, as a developer, you can afford the staggering cost of entry. Everything will be shiny and new, maintenance costs will be low, franchises are happy to move into commercial space, and rents can be kept high. But what happens over time? What happens if the neighborhood takes a downturn, or if the developer goes bankrupt, or if the management loses interest or doesn’t maintain the property? It is easy to realize the loss of sustainability with such a lack of diversity. Because the scale of the project is so large, the scale of the resulting blight will be just as large. This becomes more concerning when we realize that the typical large developer or management company has little to no stake in the local community and the long-term success of the project.

Small-scale, incremental development, by contrast, provides a built in defense against this risk by breaking up the block or developed area into economically discrete, self-dependent units which can be purchased, maintained, and improved with a much smaller budget by local private citizens. It has also been successfully demonstrated that, even if poorly maintained, this type of development can yield higher tax revenue, (which should inform the use of TIF funding) as well as the added benefit of supporting a lower barrier to entry for private development.

As Goshen continues to grow and thrive, we need to consider what kind of city we are and what that city will look like in another 20 years. Increasing residential density in downtown Goshen is not only a good idea, it is the future. It will be happening more and more in the coming years whether we like it or not. If it where not for the foresight of the property owners and developers who saw a promise in Goshen’s downtown 20 years ago, the city would not be what it is today. Let us continue that tradition of thoughtfulness and forward thinking. Much of what I have written here is said much better by the Congress for the New Urbanism and Strong Towns. I urge anyone interested in learning more about these topics to pursue them in more detail through the many books, conferences, websites, and other resources available.

For a much more in-depth understanding of these concepts, here is a link to an essay from a blog I co-founded in 2009 that addresses the issues through the lens of my hometown of Richmond, Virginia: http://urbanscalerichmondvirginia.blogspot.com/2010/05/unchanging-in-architecture.html

Three articles that are especially relevant:

• https://www.strongtowns.org/journal/2019/6/14/traditional-development
• https://www.cnu.org/publicsquare/2019/03/27/context-based-form-language-mixed-use-main-street-buildings
• https://www.cnu.org/publicsquare/2019/06/03/where-building-types-make-sense-zoning

*Update: the city has added the new renderings of the project to the Redevelopment Commission webpage as of 6/19/2019.

Update 2/24/21: for a recent look at this type of development, check out Well There's Your Problem's video on "five-over-ones": 

A Very Short Guide to Places to Not Miss in Rome

This short guide was originally written 01/05/2017 for friends planning a week long trip to Rome. 

Se non è vero, è ben trovato!

There is so much to see and do in Rome that it is with great difficulty and some remorse that I have compiled this small and abridged version of the city. I have excluded most of the palazzi, many of the museums, all but one or two of the restaurants, and of course countless churches and ancient buildings, temples, and monuments. To really experience and begin to comprehend and grow familiar with the city, at least 2-3 months is required, and that is not nearly enough. Nevertheless, those opportunities are rare and the brief span of one or two weeks is the usual allotment for the visitor to Rome. Therefore, I have divided this brief guide into sections that are in the same vicinity and that could be completed in a sequence. That sequence may, and probably should, take more than a single day. Some points I would recommend over others if you have a limited amount of time. Each little snippet about the site should be augmented with further reading. My recommendation is H. V. Morton’s "A Traveler In Rome” and James H. S. McGregor’s “Rome From the Ground Up”, to begin with. I have tried to balance the selection to represent the entire history of the city, however, there is certainly a heavy emphasis on churches which should not be surprising—this is Rome after all. I am also partial to the Renaissance and Baroque periods. 

CAMPUS MARTIUS: 

Piazza Navona - This makes a great place to begin a tour of the city. It is the site of the ancient Stadium of Domitian where many christians were martyred. The current Renaissance buildings surrounding the piazza are constructed on the foundations of the stadium. It is a very theatrical space and has been the location of many processions, markets, celebrations, etc. for two millennia. Two things to make sure to see are the Fontana dei Quattro Fiume, or Fountain of the Four Rivers by Bernini. This is a masterpiece of sculpture and allegory. Legend has it that the hand of of the Nile river god is held up to shield his eyes from Borromini’s church of Sant’ Agnese in Agone in front of which the fountain stands. The church of Sant’ Agnese is built to honor Saint Agnes who was martyred in the Stadium of Domitian. The church is an incredible example of Borromini’s skill and mastery of surface and space. 

Santa Maria della Pace - This is one of my favorite churches and piazza’s ever. With a marvelous theatrical facade by Pietro da Cortona (primarily a painter), this church takes an irregular piazza and perfectly regularizes it through the use of the classical orders (and a lot of invention). The interior of the church and the cloister are also worth seeing.  

San Agostino - This church is an example of early Renaissance architecture designed by Giacomo di Pietrasanta and Baccio Pontelli in the late 15th century. The church is home to many great works of art including my favorite Caravaggio (The Madonna di Loreto, or Pilgrim’s Madonna) along with works by Raphael, Guercino, and both Sansovinos. Make sure to peak in the Biblioteca Angelica (one of the greatest libraries in the world) located right next door.     

The Pantheon - Go see it. It’s wonderful. Lots to read about it too. 

Santa Maria Sopra Minerva - This church has so much to see. It is built on the site of an ancient temple to the goddess Isis (reimagined as Minerva in the Renaissance). Highlights include marvelous frescoes by many of the most famous painters (Fillipino Lippi, Pirro Ligorio, Fra Angelico, etc.) Sculptors and architects of the interior include Giacomo della Porta, Carlo Maderno, etc. Michelangelo’s Christo della Minerva is on the left of the alter. It is also interesting to note that this is the only Gothic church in Rome to survive untouched as such (at least on the interior).

Bar Sant’ Eustachio - This is a great place to get espresso. They have a screen behind which they make their coffee because of the secret techniques. It’s very good. Also a great place to celebrate with a bottle of prosecco, although ask for the price first—I learned this the hard way! 

Sant’ Ignatio - This is one of the greatest baroque churches in Rome, with an incredible rationalized piazza in front that takes more queues from stage design than urbanism. It is the home of the Jesuits and is full of extravagant decoration and wealth. It is most notable for the frescoes of Andrea Pozzo depicting the life and work of Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits. The best part is the fake dome that Pozzo painted in perspective on the ceiling. The attached priory was home to the baroque polymath Athenasius Kircher who you have to read about to believe. He apparently used to make light shows and play aeolian harps out one of the windows of his laboratory to the dismay of passers by and his own order. 

San Andrea della Vale - The setting for the opening act of Puccini's Tosca. Designed by Giacomo della Porta and Carlo Maderno, among others. 

Campo de’ Fiori - Magnificent piazza with a striking 19th century statue of Giordano Bruno who was burned on the spot for heresy. I think lots of people were actually burned here. There is a daily market here which is wonderful, but a bit pricey. Don’t go to the bars around here at night as they are all full of obnoxious American students. 

Palazzo Farnese - By far one of the most important Renaissance palaces in Rome, it belonged to the Farnese family. It was designed in turn by many of the greatest architects and sculptures of a very talented era: Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Michelangelo, Vignola, and Giacomo della Porta. The interior is lavish. The piazza in front of the palace is decorated with two massive granite basins from the Baths of Caracalla. 

Ponte Sisto - A beautiful 15th century bridge designed by Baccio Pontelli for Pope Sixtus IV. If you see lots of padlocks attached to the bridge it is because of a silly recent trend made popular in the 2000’s by a vapid young adult romance novel, “I Want You” by Federico Moccia. The fad is to attach "love locks" (padlocks symbolizing a couple’s love), which are in turn periodically cut off and thrown away by the city. The original location for this in the story is the Ponte Milvi, another ancient bridge located a mile upstream. 

TRASTEVERE & JANICULUM HILL:

Piazza Santa Maria in Trastevere - A short walk over the Ponte Sisto will bring you to possibly my favorite place in all of Rome. I think it is a locus of the world as you will often randomly run into people you know here sitting on the steps of the fountain or in one of the surrounding cafes. This is a great neighborhood to return to in the evening for food and drinks. If you do, a great place to eat is “La Cisterna”, a very 1940ish restaurant owned by a wealthy winemaking family. Ask to see the well that is supposed to have provided Walt Disney with the model for the well in Snow White. If you ever have dinner here with a cardinal, the waiter might just give you a bottle or two of prosecco on the way out...

Santa Maria in Trastevere - One of the oldest Christian churches in Rome and according to legend, the first dedicated to Mary. Like many of the other early churches, it is built on the site of a Christian house-church dating to the 2nd or 3rd centuries. Notice the mismatched columns from the nearby Temple of Isis and the Baths of Caracalla. These rescued columns and capitals are called “spoglia”. According to legend, a fount of oil sprang up on the site 30 years before the birth of Christ. The mosaic on the front of the church depicts Mary suckling Christ with ten virgins with lamps of oil. 

Bar San Calisto - My favorite bar in Rome. Looks like nothing during the day, but gets rowdy and fills the whole piazza at night. Also 2 Euro big Peroni’s, although I enjoy sipping sambuca here. Very popular with locals. I am convinced that the narrator of Wilbur’s poem “Lying” is sitting here. I recommend it! 

San Pietro in Montorio - Located on the Janiculum Hill (not one of the proverbial Seven Hills of Rome) with one of the best views of the city. This is a Renaissance church built on the site of 9th century church dedicated to Saint Peter. Due to a misinterpretation, this was thought to be the site of Peter’s crucifixion. Currently, the site of his crucifixion is believed to be near the Vatican on the site of a Roman circus. One of the chapels has a fresco by Peruzzi and the school of Pinturicchio. In the courtyard is the marvelous and iconic Tempietto by Bramante. This is a masterpiece of classical architecture. There is plenty of literature to read about it.  

Fontana dell’ Acqua Paola - This was originally the termination of the Acquaduct of Trajan and served many mills located on the Janiculum. It has been decorated in the Renaissance and also offers a magnificent view of the city.  

Statue of Garibaldi - If you have time this is a fun place to go around 11:45 in the morning. Right below the statue if you look out toward the city is a cannon that is wheeled out every day and fired over the city at noon. Tutto Risurgimento!   

Suppli - Suppli is an iconic Roman street food. There is a little pizza/suppli place on the right side of the street-Via di San Francesco a Ripa, 137. This is the best suppli on earth. Stop on your way to Santa Cecilia and San Francesco. 

Santa Cecelia in Trastevere - This is an 8th century church heavily redecorated in the 18th century. It is built on the site of a 3rd century church that is built on the remains of a Roman house said to be that of Saint Cecelia. The most remarkable feature of this church is the 16th century sculpture of the martyred Saint Cecelia by Stefano Maderno. It is really worth seeing. There is plenty of literature about the martyrdom of Cecelia and the discovery of her incorrupt remains in the Renaissance.   

San Francesco a Ripa - Interesting church located across the Viale Trastevere. For a small fee you can see the cell/stone where Saint Francis slept when he visited Rome. Make sure to see the exquisite Statue of Blessed Ludovica Albertoni by Bernini. 

Tiber Island - Full of churches and a wonderful medieval hospital on the site of a temple to Asclepius, the island is shaped like a boat and even has a prow that you can view from the downstream end of the island. It is connected to either bank bike antique stone bridges. 

Ponte Quattro Capi - Originally the Pons Fabricius after it was commissioned by Lucius Fabricius the curator of the roads and bridges of Rome. Connecting the Isola Tibertina with the southeast edge of the Campus Martius (now the site of the Jewish Ghetto) this bridge is the oldest original Roman bridge still in use in Italy. It has been in continuous use for 2078 years. The bridge is named after the four-faced Janus hermes added to the bridge during the Renaissance.

VELABRUM, FORUM BOARIUM, AVENTINE HILL, AND CIRCUS MAXIMUS:

Velabrum & Cloaca Maxima - In the early days of Rome, the seven hills of the city stood out more and the valleys had not yet been filled with refuse and built over. The Velabrum was a major valley running down from the Forum Romanum (the main forum) which is located between the Capitaline and Palatine hills, and at the feet of the Viminal, Quirinal, and Esquiline hills. At one time it was a marshy area at the foot of a stream, but by the time of the Etruscans, it had been channeled into an open sewer. It was gradually enclosed and covered over prior to the Republican period and further enlarged and developed over the next 700 years. It literally means “the greatest sewer” and was used to channel the runoff from streams and most of the major aqueducts, baths and fountains out into the Tiber. The arched outflow can be seen best from the side of the Ponte Palatino, a 19th century bridge. Guided tours of the Cloaca Maxima are available. 

Temple of Portunus - Also known as the Temple of Furtuna Virilis, this is one of the best preserved ancient Roman Temples. The temple was built on the site of an older temple in the first century BC. Not a whole lot is know about the deity to which it was dedicated. Due to its remarkably intact state, and ionic order, it has been often used as a model and heavily influenced the classical tradition in Italy, England, and even here in the United States.  

Temple of Hercules - Located in the Furom Boarium, or cattle market, this is an ancient Roman circular temple about which not a whole lot is known. It was converted to a church in the Renaissance. 

Santa Maria in Cosmedin - La Bocca della Verità is in the portico. This church is also located in the Forum Boarium and is built on the site of a Roman Deaconate or food distribution center. This tradition was carried on through the early church and Renaissance at the church of San Giorgio around the corner near the Arch of Janus! The portico of the church of San Giorgio was blown up in the 1990’s by the mafia as a revenge for Pope JPII’s participation in the more active campaign against them. Santa Maria in Cosmedine is traditionally associated with Greece as it and many of its surrounding buildings are Byzantine and the interior was decorated by many Greek artists fleeing the iconoclasm. It is called “cosmedin” from Greek kosmidion because of the beauty of its interior.    

Santa Sabina all’ Aventino - Located at the top of the Aventine Hill, this another of my favorite churches in Rome. This is the first “station church” in the Roman tradition of celebrating mass at certain churches throughout the city during Lent. It is the oldest surviving Roman basilica with original rectangular colonnaded plan. Unfortunately, it has been heavily reworked to return it to its supposed pristine pre-baroque state. This process is called “repristinanzione” in Italian and is in my opinion a terrible sacrilege. Thankfully, it seems to have lost popularity since the 1920’s. The beautiful wooden doors of the basilica are original to the church and date to beginning of the 5th century! They are full of intricate carving. One panel is believed to be the oldest extant representation of the crucifixion. Definitely worth the visit. Behind the church is a wonderful garden of orange trees with a view of the the city and the Tiber Island below. This was the mother church of the Dominican Order prior to its move to Santa Maria Sopra Minerva. It is still a Dominican monastery and was once the home of Saint Dominic and Saint Thomas Aquinas who was abbot before he left for France! Apparently, his cell was directly above the door and he would keep strict tally of who entered and left the monastery, and when. 

San Alessio - This is another early basilica from the 3rd century that has had many renovations and additions over the years. Its current baroque exterior is pretty marvelous. The statue of Sant’Alessio under his Holy Steps is what sticks out most in my memory. Be sure to see the icon of the Madonna of Intercession.   

Piazza del Cavalieri di Malta - This is at the end of the street past Santa Sabina and Sant’ Alessio. It is the famous garden through the keyhole of which you can see the dome of Saint Peters perfectly framed. There is no public access to the actual garden. 

Sant Anselmo - This church is located at the very end of this same street. I remember it as a good example of a new church that fits well with its surroundings. I believe it is an active monastery and is the seat of the head of the Benedictine Order.

CAPITOLINE HILL, FORUM ROMANUM, VICTOR EMMANUEL II MONUMENT, AND VIA DEI FORI EMPERIALI:

Campidoglio - There is so much going on here that I can hardly do it any justice. Definitely consult books and guides to make sure you are understanding the history and many sites, artifacts, and stories. A couple of things that I would draw attention to are the piazza itself at the top of the stairs. The piazza, complete with its wonderful geometric pavement and flanking porticoes, is the work of Michelangelo and is possibly one of the greatest works of Renaissance architecture and urbanism. It is here that he came up with the idea of a monolithic order housing a smaller order. The Capitoline Museum is fantastic and should not be missed. The original equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius stood here in the open air until the 1980’s when it was taken down for restoration and a replica put in its place. While Michelangelo disagreed with its central location in his newly design piazza, he did design the base on which it stands.  

Tarpeian Rock - At the back of the Capitol, is the Tarpeian Rock where, during the Republic, convicted traitors, etc., where thrown to their deaths. It was made especially famous in America by Nathaniel Hawthorn’s story, “The Marble Fawn”.  

Santa Maria in Aracoeli - Also of note would be Santa Maria in Aracoeli, a medieval church built on the site of a 5th century Byzantine abbey that is in turn said to be built on the site of the Arx, or original citadel of pre-Roman times. Legend has it that the sacred geese in the grounds of the Temple of Juno warned the inhabitants of the citadel of a night attack by the Gauls. The goddess was therefore given the title Juno Moneta (from Latin monere- to warn). This in turn gave its name to “money” which was presided over by the goddess Juno as the mother of the state. It is also said to be the site where the Tibertine Sybil prophesied the coming of Christ to Augustus. Both the sybil and Augustus figure prominently in the artwork of the church. It also houses the Santo Bambino, a small renaissance era wooden devotional image of the baby Jesus. This object has attracted fanatical attention over the last 300 years and was “crowned” by the pope in the late 19th century. In the 1990’s it was stolen and replaced with a copy. Definitely an entertaining and classically Roman story to research! Another infamous figure to read about is Cola di Rienzo who has a small statue near the spot where he was executed right off the stairs up to the church… 

Victor Emmanual Monument - Officially known as the Altare della Patria, it is more commonly known as “The Wedding Cake”, “The Typewriter”, or “English Soup”. An entire medieval neighborhood was demolished for its construction along with a part of the Capitoline hill. This monstrously incongruous building was built of non-native white stone at the turn of the last century. 

Forum Romanum - There is far too much going on here for me to describe it. Make sure to see the doors to the Roman Curia, the Umbilicus urbis Romae, the Umphalos, the Curia Julia (bronze doors are replacements after the original we transferred to the Lateran in the 17th century), and see if you can spot the ancient Roman wagon ruts in the original street paving. 

Via dei Fori Imperiali - This road was blasted through the remains of the Imperial Forums by Benito Mussolini to demonstrate his authority and provide a space to parade his troops. It is highly unfortunate. 

Palatine Hill - Beautiful place for a picnic. Also a great view of the forum and the back of the Campidoglio. 

Colosseum - Pretty cool. Never been inside, but I have seen “Return of the Dragon”... It was used as a stone quarry for other projects during the Renaissance! Plenty to read about it. 

CELIAN HILL, LATERAN, VIMINAL HILL, & ESQUILINE HILL: 

San Gregorio Magna al Celio - Beautiful church run by the Benedictines. Saint Augustine of Canterbury was Abbot before he left on his mission to the Saxons. It has three oratories located in a garden by the side of the church. They are very rustic and peaceful. The Missionaries of Charity (Mother Theresa of Calcutta’s Order) have a small building to the side that they use to run a homeless shelter.  

Santi Giovanni e Paolo - This large early basilica is built on top an early Christian house church (recently uncovered). The interior was added to quite heavily in the late baroque and features very extravagant lamps. The Romanesque tower is very visible from the courtyard and features ceramic roundels of many colors. While the are often thin roundels of marble or porphyry (sometimes antique columns cut in section), I have heard that those on this tower are actually Islamic ceramic plates looted from the Holy Land.  

Santa Maria in Domenica - Directly in front of the church is an ancient Roman boat sculpture said to have been in the area since antiquity. The beautiful early Renaissance facade dates from the early 1500’s and is attributed to Andrea Sansovino, one of my favorite architects. This was the cardinal church of the Medici family for many years and bears much of their work. Note the square halo around Pope Paschal’s head in the apse mosaic—this signifies his saint-hood even though he was still alive at the time of its construction.  

Santo Sabastiano Rotundo - This is one of two circular churches in Rome. It was built in the 5th century to house the remains of Saint Stephen whose body had recently been recovered from the Holy Land. It’s walls depict many gruesome frescoes of martyrdom.

Basilica di San Giovanni in Latarano - This is the cathedral of Rome, and as such, contains the cathedra, seat of the Roman Pontifex Maximus, or Pope. It is an extremely important church and the culmination of the Via Sacra which begins at the Vatican. The Lataran Palace was gifted to the pope by Emperor Constantine and housed the popes for close to a thousand years before they moved to the Vatican. The church itself was redone by Borromini and is magnificent. It features sculptures of all the Apostles. The exterior was designed by the mathematician and architect Alessandro Galilei, a descendant of the famous Galileo Galilei.   

Santi Quattro Coronati - This is one of my absolute favorite churches in Rome. It is fully fortified from it’s medieval days outside the walls of Rome. It is one of the earliest churches in Rome and was once very important. It was burned during the Norman sack of Rome and rebuilt on a smaller scale. Over the years it gained its fortified walls and is now in a quiet part of the city off the beaten track. Make sure to pay a couple of Euros to see the beautiful little jewel-box Oratorio di San Sylvestro on the right as you enter the second courtyard. I have found this a great place to sketch. 

San Clemente - This is a must-see. The existing church is a Byzantine structure (with possibly the best mosaic apse in Rome depicting the tree of life) over early Christian church, over a Roman villa with a Temple of Mithras in the basement. It also has stream that flows into the forum. 

ESQUILINE HILL, VIMINAL, AND QUIRINAL HILLS:

San Pietro in Vincoli - This is another great example of an early Christian church (mid-4th century) that has accumulate the trappings of every era right down the the 18th century ceiling. There are several works by Renaissance artists, the most famous being Michelangelo’s Moses (with “horns”). I believe the horns are a result of a Vulgate mistranslation that was supposed to refer to rays of light streaming from Moses’ head after he returns with the Ten Commandments. Either way, the monument is truly a masterpiece and definitely worth seeing. The monument is the Tomb of Pope Julius II, a Pope to whom Michelangelo (and all of us) owe a great debt. He commissioned both the rebuilding of St. Peter’s Basilica, and Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel Ceiling among many other building and art projects. 

Domus Auria - Nero’s “golden house” was an extravagant private villa that gains its name from the extensive use of gold leaf, along with precious stones, ivory, and frescoes that covered the interior. It was built on land that Nero seized after the great fire of 64 AD and covered a larger section of land in the city. There is plenty of literature on the site and the huge effect its discovery during the Renaissance had on the artists of the time. The term “grotesque" originates from the frescoes discovered in the domus, because Renaissance artists were let down into the “grotto” on ropes to study and sketch the frescoes. Many famous signatures can be found scratched into the walls. 

Baths of Trajan - There is a nice little park for picnics located on the site of the baths which are a ruin. After Nero committed suicide, the following emperors built over his golden house with a variety of projects culminating in these baths built by the Emperor Trajan. Plenty to read on these.  

Santa Bibiana - If you have time, it’s worth hiking a bit further to this wonderful little Baroque church whose facade was designed by Bernini when he was 25. Although built on the site of previous earlier churches, it is remarkable manly for Bernini’s work, including his Statue of Santa Bibiana. There are also frescoes by Pietro da Cortona (architect of the facade Santa Maria della Pace) and Agostino Ciampelli. 

Santa Prassede - The mosaic program of this church is extensive and dates back to its first renovation in the 9th century by Pope Paschal (again represented with his square halo). The building, like many others was constructed on the site of a previous early Christian church. There is plenty of literature on the mosaic program. Don’t miss the Column of the Flagellation, the alleged pillar on which Christ was flogged before his crucifixion.  

Santa Maria Maggiore - Lots to see here. I can hardly do it justice, but will point to a couple of things not to miss. The mosaics are probably the best in Rome and I believe some of the earliest. Note the highly sophisticated “impressionistic” style of the mosaics during this late Antique period as opposed to the more crude representations during the time of Pope Paschal 400 years later. I believe that they include some of the earliest representations (5th century) of the Virgin Mary, represented as Theotokos (a term that would have been in use here in Rome at the time), following the Council of Ephasus.  

Santa Pudenziana - If you have time, this is another interesting site. Although rather out of the way now, this was a major church in the early days of the church and is said to be the oldest place of Christian worship in Rome. Built sometime in the 2nd century, it was the residence of the pope until Emperor Constantine bequeathed the Lataran Palace to the pope in its stead.  

Baths of Diocletian - Lots to read about these. Various parts of the bath have since been turned into churches and part of the Museum of Natural History.   

Statione Termini - This is the main train station for Rome and is executed in a modernist style in concrete. In front of the station is a small portion of the Servian Wall. Richard Wilbur has a very good poem about the station called “For the New Railway Station in Rome”.   

Er Buchetto - I think this means “hole in the wall”, but I’m not sure-Via del Viminale 2 F. Either way it’s the best "panino con porchetta" sandwich in Rome, and has been since 1890… Porchetta is roast pig. Very affordable and best consumed with a white wine. 

Santa Maria della Vittoria - High Baroque church famous for it’s magnificent “Ecstasy of Saint Teresa” by Bernini.  

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane - This is one you shouldn't miss. It is also known as "San Carlino" because of its diminutive size, it was designed by Francesco Borromini (one of my favorite architects!) and is remarkable in this list for being original construction without an older church encased behind its facade. While this was one of Borromini’s first commissions, it was plagued with financial difficulties and may have lead to Borromini’s suicide 33 years later (the facade was not completed until after his death). It was an incredibly difficult site (the whole footprint of the church can fit within one of the piers of St. Peter’s Basilica), but Borromini was able to fit this incredible little church, complete with its remarkable dome and curving facade onto the site along with a tiny cloister with alternating upside-down and right-side-up balusters. 

Sant’ Andrea al Quirinale - The next church to visit is this wonderful counterpoint to Borromini’s San Carlino. Designed by Borromini’s more successful competitor Gian Lorenzo Bernini, it is also an elliptically shaped church and was completed around the same time. It is difficult to summarize the multiple allegorical, tropological, and literal levels of design that Bernini employed in the design of the church. I would highly recommend reading more on the incredible brilliance and depth of the design. Suffice it to say, the church was commissioned to house the Jesuit novices preparing to be sent forth as missionaries around the world (and probably martyred). Thus the bloody red-streaked marble interior…  

Palazzo del Quirinale - This is essentially the Italian White House, although it has also housed many popes and kings as well as presidents. Built on the Quirinal Hill, (the highest hill in Rome) it was in antique times very desirable and likely had many patrician villas built in the area. The palace is massive and includes many interior structures and gardens. There is usually some flashy Italian guard-changing, etc., which can be fun to watch. There is also a wonderful view of the city. Our apartment during one of our stays in Rome was not far from here and I walked through the piazza almost every day. The central balcony is the work of Bernini. 

VILLA BORGHESE, PINCIAN GARDENS, PIAZZA DEL POPULO, ARA PACIS, MOSOLEUM OF HADRIAN, SPANISH STEPS, FASHION DISTRICT:

Villa Borghese Museum - Do not miss visiting this museum containing some of the best art in the world. It is tricky to get tickets. I believe you must buy them several days or more in advance. I would strongly advise purchasing tickets before your leave for the trip. Not much I can add about the museum other than it is wonderful. 

Pincian Hill - Although not one of the Seven Hills of Rome, this area has been a garden retreat since antiquity with many ancient villas and gardens in the vicinity. These are also the gardens that were the haunts of the first English expatriates in the 18th and 19th centuries including Keats, Shelley, Byron, Lear, Eliot, Dickens, Browning, and Thackeray among many others. A great place for a picnic after the Villa Borghese.  

Santa Maria del Populo - This is another church not to miss on a tour of Rome. According to legend, there stood a tree on the spot that was a home to many crows that were thought to be the evil spirit of the Emperor Nero. Pope Paschal II had the tree cut down and a church built on its site. The current structure is another wonderful example of early Renaissance architecture designed by our friend Baccio Pontelli and Andrea Bregno in the late 15th century for Pope Sixtus IV. Bernini in turn redid the facade in the 17th century. The interior is absolutely full of some of the greatest works of art in the world. The apse was designed by Donato Bramante, Pinturicchio frescoed the vault, Andrea Sansovino designed two of the tombs, Francesco da Sangallo designed another tomb in an incredible chapel decorated with more frescoes by Pinturicchio, Carlo Fontana designed yet another chapel, Raphael himself designed the Chigi Chapel that was completed by Bernini, Caravaggio completed to paintings for the Cerasi Chapel (Crucifixion of Saint Peter and Saint Paul’s Conversion). The list goes on. Don’t miss this one. 

Ara Pacis - This is an interesting one. Housed within this monstrously incongruous glass box designed by the architect Richard Meier in 2006 is the 1st century BC altar dedicated to Pax, the goddess of Peace.  

Spanish Steps - Go sit on them. At the foot of the steps is the Roman fashion district. To the right of the steps is the Keats/Shelley Memorial House which is fun to visit if you have the time.   

Palazzo Barberini - A short hike past the Triton Fountain in the Piazza Barberini will take you from here to the Palazzo Barberini. This Baroque palace now houses the Museum of Ancient Art. Originally designed by Carlo Moderno, and completed by Bernini with Borromini playing second fiddle. It has many wonderful frescoes and the museum is worth a visit on its own merits. 

OTHER POINTS OF INTEREST:

Ponte Sant’ Angelo - Take this to get to the Vatican.  

Via della Concilazione - The Via della Conciliazione stretches from the Castel Sant’ Angelo and the Ponte Sant’ Angelo to the Vatican. It is a new road that blasted through an entire medieval neighborhood and was supposed to symbolize the connection between the Vatican and the newly formed Italian State. Keep in mind that Bernini’s famous piazza would have been designed to be entered from a tiny winding medieval street, not this grand boulevard.  

Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano - Plenty to read about this prior to your visit.

Vatican Museum - Same here. Make sure you research your visit and know when and where to get tickets and line up for entry.  

Villa Farnesina - Beautiful Renaissance palace on the banks of the Tiber with extraordinary frescoes, etc. 

Porta Portese Market - Open on Sunday morning and crazy… Watch your purse or wallet—it will either be spent by you on some of the incredible stuff they sell, or stolen by a gypsy. One of and Amy and my favorite places to go in Rome. 

Catacombs of San Callisto - Probably one of the best catacombs to visit, these are located along the Appian Way which is nice to see in its own right. They date from the 2nd century with many famous Christian tombs including many popes. It is necessary to take a bus to reach these catacombs. 

Bar Giulia - Located on the side of the Via Giulia (a very important papal urban intervention) this cafe is rumored to have the best cappuccino in Rome. If I’m remembering properly, I this rumor is correct. 

Tivoli - If you are looking for a short trip outside the city, Tivoli can be visited by a short bus ride from the city. This was an ancient resort town located about 20 miles east of Rome at an ancient locus of trade and transportation where the River Aniene issues from the Sabine Hills. Many famous Romans and emperors had villas in or around Tivoli. Originally, the river wrapped around the raised acropolis of the town with its Roman temples and plunged over 4 sets of cataracts in its descent to the Roman campagna. This drop of the river created a deep gorge and was used to power mills and canals through the town from an early date. After numerous floods, the river was redirected away from the town and the gorge in the early 19th century. Make sure to visit Hadrian’s Villa located on the way up to the town, as well as the the marvelous Renaissance Villa d’Este and its gardens, powered by canals from the Aniene. The Villa Gregoriana was built as a part of the redirection of the river and is located a short walk from the Villa d’Este in the gorge through which the Aniene River once ran. I highly recommend a visit to this wonderful site. This was a required stop on the English “Grand Tour” and many romantic artists have depicted it, the temple of “Vesta”, and the falls of the river. 

Subiaco - A slightly longer trip, this town is located further up the Aniene River and is notable for its monastery, founded by St. Benedict and is the location where he wrote his famous “Rule". The town itself was built around another of Nero's extravagant Villa’s. The current town is a wonderful example of a medieval hill town. The Ponte San Francesco located at the crossing of the river is a beautiful fortified medieval bridge. The monastery itself can be reached by foot and is built against the side of a rocky cliff. It features many works of art and magnificent views. 

Cerveteri - This is a town not far from Rome and the location of an ancient Etruscan settlement dating back at least to the 9th century BC. Much of our knowledge of the Etruscan civilization in based on the preserved tombs of the extensive necropoli outside the town. These are very interesting to visit. There is a run-down place to eat local fare and drink the local new (an untransportable) white wine built into the historic caves of the city.

Frank Gehry circa 1980.

Mel Brooks' The Critic

Critical Consciousness and the Unchanging in Architecture

‹‹Bisogno fare qualsiasi cosa, fuorché l’invenzione di cose nuove: la vera invinzione è il non inventare nulla. Chi si rende consapevole di tutta l’inventabilità dell’inventabile è colui che non inventa nulla, perché ormai tutto quello di cui è capace questo nostro sistema planetario è già stato prodotto, ed è tutto qui: più esso sarà reinventato e piu sara posto in crisi. 
Ma occorre viceversa capirlo.
Dunque pianificare vuol dire lasciare lavorare la realtà, comprendendone il senso del miglior utilizzo››.
S. Muratori, Autocoscienza e realtà nella storia delle ecumeni civili, a cura di G. Maranucci, Roma 1976.

One question is of singular importance to the contemporary architect attempting to return to the classical tradition amidst the dissolving wake of the modernist movement. That question is “what is unchanging in architecture?” Tradition, in this sense, is the means by which we access truth. The adjective classical denotes works of architecture which are prized as the finest exemplars of a tradition. These are held up as models for the guidance of current practice and for the assurance of future success. Therefore, the form that the examples in a classical tradition take is necessarily contingent on the material requirements and propriety connected with both time and place.

The classical architecture of one era will not take shape in the same way as that of another, nor will the architecture of one place necessarily resemble that of a different place even at the same time. Conventions such as patterns of use, fashion, language and ways of building change over time and in different places, gaining their correctness through general acceptance and habit. This accepted knowledge and these skills and customs—-means by which we pursue the true, the beautiful and the good—-are guarded and handed on by the custodians of tradition to succeeding generations. As part of this transfer, the means of accessing truth is developed and changed according to the requirements of time and place. The tradition of one place may not be the same as that of another. The purpose of tradition is to bring into conformity the way we each pursue our ends in the particular with the best possible means of achieving those ends in the universal. In other words, tradition is the way in which our judgment is informed through the comparison of the way things are with the way things should be. Thus tradition is not about preserving a unique way of building, but of ensuring that our buildings are the best they can possibly be.

The concept of imitation is essential to an understanding of tradition. The idea of mimesis, first formulated by Aristotle in his Poetics, became an explicit principle of creative formation and procedure from ancient Greece until the end of the Renaissance.[i] As James Ackerman has noted, the concept of imitation was understood in two ways both for the ancients and the thinkers of the Renaissance.[ii] Imitation in art occurred both in mimesis—the imitation of nature or human behavior, and in the imitation of preceding artists. The first mode of imitation forms the framework in which moral judgment is made possible, while the second provides a means of translating these universal truths for a particular time and place.

Imitation, as Quatremere de Quincy enunciated as late as 1823, was seen not as mere copying of natural forms or previous works, but as the embodiment of apparent universal rules governing the production of beauty in the work of art.[iii] These rules could be extracted from nature and perfected over time through the imitation of predecessors in a tradition. As Ackerman points out, imitation is inherently forward looking. By this he means that the artist is able to use imitation during the creation of the work of art. This view is in opposition to that of modern art historians who use the concept of “influence,” an idea only debatable after the creation of the work of art and in the service of the art historian.[iv]

How are we then to judge what is essential in a tradition? What can be discarded in the face of improved technology, or to suit changing political or physical conditions? This question has undoubtedly been the starting point of all architectural endeavors and probably troubled the architects of the fourteenth century as much as it did the proponents of the eighteenth and nineteenth century revivals. In a world so full of varying forms it has been difficult to determine what concepts and categories should guide contemporary practice. Compounded with a seeming abundance of choices, the void left by modernism’s denial of tradition has exaggerated its self-proclaimed goal of severing us from the past. We are faced not only with the questions raised by the contingent reality of tradition itself, but by any attempt to restore a tradition that has been systematically eradicated.

As citizens of the United States our tradition is that of the West. This is not to say that the tradition of Greco-Roman-Judeo-Christian architecture is the only one in our country, or the first, but that it is the visible part our “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” The need to separate our new republic from the colonialism of England and justify our classically derived system of government prepared the United States for the embodiment of its constitution in an architecture of Western classicism. Little wonder that the author of the Declaration of Independence should also design the new Capitol of Virginia using the classicism of the Roman temple.

Fiske Kimball in his American Architecture asserts that “the classical ideal thus embodied was ultimately to rule in America to a degree unknown in Europe.”[v] Indeed, it was to precede it by more than a decade. The embodiment of the political order in the architecture of America is significant in that it points to the most essential truth of the classical tradition: the understanding that the highest good in life is the perfection of our nature, a good held since the Greeks to be accomplished through the moral life led in community. This is the self-evident truth behind the most just political systems of the past and the guiding principle in the American founding.

What this understanding means for architecture is that our ability to pursue our highest end as individuals is dependent on the freedom insured by our government, and that architecture serves this good as the embodiment of the state.[vi] In other words, architecture is the visible part of the more important activity of politics. Conversely, it is only in the freedom provided by well-ordered politics that architecture can be pursued. Vitruvius opens his De re aedificatoria by noting that it is in the realm of peace brought about by the Emperor Augustus’ conquest of the world that the opportunity and need for civic buildings arose, thus grounding architecture in a particular relationship with politics.[vii] Not only can mere building become architecture, but architecture can embody the polity and legitimate its claim to authority. By doing so, it can establish the means for its citizens to pursue the moral life.

Traditions are necessarily conventional. This means that they are contingent on materials, climate and circumstance. Conventional knowledge is particular, temporal and accidental, meaning that it could have been otherwise. Limited by the contingencies of both time and place, knowledge of convention is gained from experience and hearsay. The best pitch of a roof is dependant on the climate and characteristics of the location. That there exists a hierarchy of architectural orders and that they include an architrave, frieze and corona is not necessarily true (although the predominance of such features across traditions could point to a correspondence with a larger order). So too, the rules governing a given order’s proportions may vary with the changing requirements and traditions of the building and its purpose. Gaining as they do their acceptance through trial and error, such conventions are not necessary truths, or a priori knowledge, but point to a correspondence with an order outside of sense experience. Conventions have been adduced to be the best possible way of embodying the necessary truths of political life. Conventional knowledge on its own may be factually true and empirically verifiable, however, by its very nature it cannot be true in every instance. It can only tell us about the actual world and hence what is the case; it can say nothing about the ideal world and what should be the case.[viii]

When the American founders referred to the self-evident truths of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness they were invoking the necessary truth of nature, the repository first described by the ancient Greeks of the true, the beautiful and the good.[ix] As a priori knowledge, these truths of nature can be known through reason independently of experience or empirical evidence and are understood as incontrovertible imperatives. In platonic terms Nature can be described as the intuitive realm of perfect forms; for Vitruvius she was “the architect [who] placed the hinges as central axes” of the earth.[x] For our purposes it is sufficient to say that nature is the totality of universal truths both known and unknown including the laws of physics, the rules of geometry and logic, and the truths described in the American Constitution such as justice, liberty, the equality of man, and the pursuit of happiness. Indeed, nature includes not only the natural objects around us such as plants, animals and rocks, but the system of principles by which things can be explained according to reason and which were true prior to their discovery. More importantly, nature provides the mark against which rational judgment is made possible, the moral order which allows us to state confidently that democracy is the best form of government because it has as its goal the good of every citizen, and the goal of all our efforts as human beings.

We can posit the idea of democracy, though a state where every citizen has been treated equally has never existed, because we can see that a state where some or all are not free is imperfect. In other words, the truth of nature is revealed only through the comparison of things we experience or accept with things we know to be true through reason. The truth of nature is self-evident, but it can only be accessed through our experience of conventional truth. As Socrates points out to Meno, people do not enquire into what they fancy they know, though they may in fact be entirely ignorant of it, unless they begin to compare what they think they know with the truth of nature.[xi] For example, we are gifted with the concept of justice at birth, but we must experience different embodiments of justice in practice to be able to understand perfect justice, and we must always be ready to reexamine our necessarily incomplete knowledge of justice. This Socratic doubt leading to the discovery of the order of nature—to the intrinsic, universal and enduring—is made possible only through out experience with the extrinsic, particular and transient we encounter in the here and now.[xii]

For the pagan writers of antiquity truth was embodied in number. The comparison between knowledge of convention and nature could be expressed through the concept of the part and its relationship with the whole. Number and the relation between numbers, or proportion, were seen as ideal frameworks upon which the basis of nature was modeled. The application of number and proportion to conventional material resulted in measure, and the correct use of number and proportion resulted in the beauty of the building. To phrase this another way, measure was meaning embodied in experience through beauty.

For Vitruvius, architecture depended upon number in the form of Order, Arrangement, Eurhythmy, Symmetry, Propriety and Economy. In the first place, “ordering is the proportion to scale of the work’s correspondence to an overall proportional scheme of symmetry.”[xiii] In other words, for the work to be beautiful it must initially conform to a geometrical framework extending to the subsequent design.[xiv] Arrangement, eurhythmy, symmetry, propriety and economy are aspects of this proportional application of number to material and depend on measure, which determines the relationships that make up proportion. At the center of this ideal proportional analogy Vitruvius placed the human body, described in the correspondence between the form of the extended human figure within the perfect geometric shapes of the square and circle.[xv] The anthropomorphic analogy was subsequently taken as the beginning of classical imitation and dominated architectural theory well through the sixteenth century.

According to Vitruvius the architect employs both conventional knowledge gained through experience, which Vitruvius termed fabrica, and the knowledge of the necessary truths of nature to explain a work’s beauty through ratiocinatio, or reasoned judgment. Just as the limbs of the body are proportioned in relation to the whole within a meaningful framework, beautiful buildings must have a relationship between their elements and the whole corresponding to their enduring purpose. The perfect geometrical forms within which the finite proportions of the human body are inscribed allow us to explain their beauty according to a higher meaning. Thus measure is essential for Vitruvius in the application of proportion to material, but only insofar as it serves the meaning inherent in the number it defines.

Renaissance thinkers such as Leon Battista Alberti took the tradition of Socratic skepticism, or the understanding that expertise must include both the knowledge of convention and of nature to its highest level, analytically breaking up all accepted thought into its constituent parts and reassembling them in a way that could answer the requirements of new and changing circumstances. Alberti, in his own words, "never stopped exploring, considering, and measuring everything, and comparing the information through line drawings, until [he] had grasped and understood fully what each had to contribute in terms of ingenuity and skill,” or until he had determined through measure the dimensions imitated by the ancients from nature.[xvi] Critical to this ability was the understanding that the content of a thing was more important then its form, and that form served as the access to a thing’s content.

The essence of the modernist movement lies in the mistaken belief that this Socratic doubt, instigated by our encounter with conventional truth, can only be answered by conventional truth, or fact. When Enlightenment thinkers realized the possibilities of the connection between natural and conventional truth based upon improvements in the science of measurement their Socratic doubt of received ideas turned to a revolutionary doubt in the very meaning of the universe. As soon as the measure of a thing (formerly a means of extracting a material object from a universal idea) became the thing’s very meaning, the imitation of nature by architects became pointless. While previous thought had held that regardless of the form of a thing such as the universe, the meaning behind it was immutable, the new view held that the way we perceive the universe, or the form of a thing, was all we could know about it, and therefore the way it should be.

Artists and architects, in the tradition of Socrates, have always questioned accepted truths and sought to translate them into the language of their own time. However, the Enlightenment’s rejection of inherent meaning required that artists’ translations could only be descriptive, meaning that they now relied on measure devoid of meaning. Imitation, in order to avoid the trap of mere copying, must be undertaken analytically. This means that, just as Alberti carefully studied all the ways in which the greatest buildings had treated specific conditions thereby arriving at an understanding of the universal they all pointed toward, imitation must be undertaken with a thorough knowledge of the whole body of traditional architecture and extract from each model pieces of the eventual solution for the given set of conditions. Imitation in the Enlightenment became the descriptive copying of the measurements and particulars of specific buildings. It was no longer the analytical treatment of precedents as a kit of parts capable of innumerable possibilities, all working within the framework of a building’s inherent purpose.

In order to judge what is essential in a tradition and what may be discarded in the face of improved technology, it will be necessary to recover our ability to think analytically. In other words, we must recover the understanding of imitation. The twentieth-century Italian architectural theorist Saverio Muratori has posited the existence of two types of consciousness essential to all architectural traditions. Spontaneous consciousness is entirely conventional and, though invariably traditional, lacks the analytical capacity for imitation. It could be described as something quite similar to Vitruvius’ fabrica, or practice. Spontaneous consciousness is simply the way things are built. Critical consciousness, on the other hand, represents the theoretical side of architecture. "When someone builds his own house with his own hands, he does not follow the dictates of the various architectural schools or currents and does not choose to build it out of structural steel or tree trunks without distinction: he does it as a house is built at that particular moment and in his own cultural area, thus acting in full spontaneous consciousness. Acting with critical consciousness is almost the opposite: when we are going through one of those critical periods . . . people are obliged to choose what they are doing, but let us make it clear, they do not choose having acquired greater maturity but out of uncertainty that what they are doing is right or wrong, in the absence of their community codifying what is right and wrong."[xvii] Muratori describes this modern absence of communal consensus as a crisis, carefully reminding us that the term does not necessarily denote a catastrophe, but rather the point at which an unresolved question is recognized and addressed. Critical consciousness is for Muratori both the cause of modernism and the only means of returning to and continuing architectural tradition. "If it is impossible to resuscitate spontaneous consciousness when we no longer have it, it is wise to exercise critical consciousness for the best. And the best that this can produce is to stick to the world of spontaneous consciousness, i.e. to recuperate what we would do if we had continued to operate through it."[xviii] It is only with our critical consciousness that we can regain the necessary ability to compare what is with what should be.

This is accomplished, according to Muratori, through the analytical “reading” [lettura] of the great buildings and cities of the past and the extraction from them of the essential human patterns of building. Rather than merely copying details—roof pitches, façades, column diminution or plans—the traditional architect must break down all the examples of the way in which buildings in the tradition conventionally treat specific problems, and from them reassemble a theory of universal types of architecture, both on the scale of the individual building scale and that of the larger city. Central to this endeavor is the understanding that although there may be new uses for buildings and cities, there are a limited number of building and urban types. These types derive from universal constants among buildings and cities.

Modernism attempted to replace spontaneous consciousness, a principle intimately linked with tradition, with a wholly theoretical vision of the future. As a result, however, architects have come to rely completely on conventional knowledge and the denial of analytical thought. In the attempt to enthrone critical consciousness as the sole means of producing art, modernist thinkers have been forced back upon conventional truth utterly devoid of theory and meaning. Modernism, for all its insistence on originality and freedom from tradition, is in fact a slave merely to the way things are done. Neoclassicism, the ultimate manifestation of modernism, is motivated to copy only particulars in just the same way that twentieth-century modern architecture can do nothing more than conform to the whims of its architect.

In order to comprehend what is unchanging in traditional architecture, we must understand that while conventional truth cannot prescribe the way things should be, it is the only means by which we are led to compare the way things are with the way they ought to be. Practice informs theory. Conventional knowledge provides the means by which we can access the order of nature. It is only through the analytical imitation of convention that we can apprehend the universal order of nature and make manifest the city of God.


NOTES
[i] Aristotle. The Basic Works of Aristotle. Ed. Richard McKeon. (New York: Random House, 1941), 478.
[ii] Ackerman, “Imitation.” Origins, Imitation, Conventions: Representation in the Visual Arts. (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2002), 64.
[iii] Quatremère de Quincy. An Essay on the Nature, the End, and Means of Imitation in the Fine Arts. Trans. J.C. Kent. (London: Smith, Elder and Co., Cornhill, 1837), 11.
[iv] Ackerman, 65.
[v] Kimball, American Architecture. (Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1928), 75.
[vi] Westfall, Carroll William, and Robert Jan van Pelt. Architectural Principles in the Age of Historicism. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 49.
[vii] Vitruvius, Marcus Pollio. Ten Books on Architecture. Trans. Ingrid D. Rowland. (New York: Cambridge UP, 1999), 21.
[viii] Westfall, Architectural Principles, 56.
[ix] Westfall, Carroll William. “Architecture and Democracy, Democracy and Architecture.” Democracy and the Arts. Ed. Arthur M. Melzer, et al. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999. 72-91), 76.
[x] Vitruvius, 109.
[xi] Plato. “The Meno.” The Collected Dialogues of Plato. Trans. Benjamin Jowett. (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961), 389.
[xii] Westfall, in Architecture and Democracy, Democracy and Architecture, has described this doubt as “pious skepticism,” which has been replaced by the impious skepticism of modernity.
[xiii] Vitruvius, 24.
[xiv] Vitruvius, Commentary, 149.
[xv] Vitruvius, 47.
[xvi] Alberti, Leon Battista. On the Art of Building in Ten Books. Trans. Joseph Rykwert. (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1988), 155.
[xvii] Gianfranco Caniggia and Gian Luigi Maffei. Interpreting Basic Building: Architectural Composition and Building Typology. Florence, Italy: Alinea, 2001), 36.
[xviii] Caniggia and Maffei, 42.